Several countries across the African continent are embroiled in war. Some of the worst-hit are South Sudan, Ethiopia, Sudan, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Somalia, the Central African Republic and Burkina Faso.
These armed conflicts are caused by a range of factors, including bad governance, corruption, poverty, rights violations and religious intolerance.
Armed conflict has led to the loss of millions of African lives over the decades and negatively affected national development. It has also caused huge losses to cultural heritage.
Without a reawakening of cultural conscience among Africans – and political will from governments – the continent’s heritage will continue to suffer neglect and destruction. Partnerships among African states, heritage stakeholders and regional and international organisations are equally fundamental in establishing a solid foundation for heritage protection.
There are several accounts of the destruction of Africa’s heritage in conflict situations. For instance, the war between Eritrea and Ethiopia – which started in 1998 and ended with a peace deal in 2000 – resulted in the Ethiopian army toppling the Stella of Matara, a 2 500-year-old sculpture of cultural significance.
In Mali in 2012, rebel Islamist groups took over Timbuktu and destroyed mosques, mausoleums and Sufi tombs that had been built in the 15th century.
In Ivory Coast, sacred circular masks were stolen and some burnt during a conflict that began in 2002. The Klin Kpli, the sacred talking drum of the Baoule people, was stolen from the royal court of Sakassou.
In Senegal between 1990 and 2011, churches, mosques and sacred forests were destroyed as civilians used them for refuge and combatants sought to hide from government troops.
In the Nigerian civil war between 1967 and 1970, the Oron Museum in the country’s east was occupied by troops. The Oran Kepi ancestral figures kept there were moved to Umuahia town in the south for safekeeping. When the war reached Umuahia, the objects were transferred to Orlu, about 70km away. Unfortunately, a lack of knowledge on the value of these artefacts led to them being used as firewood by the residents of Orlu.
In Sierra Leone, the civil war between 1991 and 2002 severely damaged a museum in Freetown. Some artefacts were riddled with bullet holes, while others were destroyed by rain due to the damage done to the museum’s roof, windows and doors.
Ethiopia has more recently illustrated how armed conflict destroys historical items. The country’s northern region of Tigray – rich in religious heritage and a tourist attraction – has been war-torn since November 2020. Ancient manuscripts and invaluable artefacts in the region have been targeted for destruction and looting by Ethiopian and Eritrean troops.
International law provides for the protection of cultural heritage during war. However, for these legal mechanisms to take effect, governments need to have affected them in times of peace. One such law is the 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict.
The convention’s Protocol II is the most effective at protecting heritage during conflict. State parties to the protocol can exercise universal jurisdiction to extradite or try any heritage offenders found in their territory.
Another important law is the 1970 Unesco Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property. There is also the 1995 Unidroit Convention on Stolen or Illegally Exported Cultural Objects.
No African country has laws specifically aimed at domesticating these international conventions. This makes implementation of their provisions largely impossible.
- Adewumi is a senior lecturer at the University of Ibadan in Nigeria. This article first appeared on The Conversation.
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